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Katha Upanishad
Vajasravasa performed an elaborate sacrifice,
which terminated with a parting of all his possessions
as gifts to the guests assembled. Vajasravasa’s son,
Nachiketas,
watched the proceedings and, as he saw the gifts being
given, he was filled with the thought of the vanity of
it all.
“Of what use is it” he said to himself “giving these
toothless old cattle and cows, past the age of bearing?
Should not my father, if he is minded to give what is
dear to him,
give me away?”
So he went to his father and said: “Father! To whom are
you going to give me?”
His father did not pay heed to the question, but went on
with the routine of the great sacrifice. Nachiketas
repeated the question again and again till Vajasravasa,
losing
patience, exclaimed without meaning like what he said:
“You? I shall give you to Yama (the god of death).
Nothing could be uttered on such a solemn occasion but
must be carried out. The father was aghast at his own
exclamation. Nachiketas, however, decided to go to Yama.
“Many have gone before me and many yet must go after me.
I go not alone to Death, and what can Yama do to me?
Consider what has happened before this, and consider
what is going to happen in the future. Countless are the
mortals that have died before this and will die
hereafter. The life of mortals, indeed, is like that of
a corn that grows
and ripens and is reaped, and like the grains that fall
that spring again into life.”
So Nachiketas went to Yama. Yama was not prepared for
the voluntary visitor. He was not willing to receive
anyone before time. Nachiketas had to wait for three
days before
Yama received him. A Brahmin could not thus be
disregarded even by Yama (the god of death). So, to make
up for the offence, Death (Yama) offered to Nachiketas
three
boons in return. Death offered to Nachiketas whatever
boons he might desire. He offered many gifts – length of
days, and all kinds of earthly possessions that one
could
desire, and Swarga (heaven) thereafter. But the youth
chose for the boon – instruction from Yama himself about
the nature of the soul.
“There is no boon that I desire other than this
knowledge” said Nachiketas, “and there can be no better
instructor than you for imparting this knowledge. What
use is length
of days and what joy can possessions (give), or song or
dance or houses and chariots give, so long as you are
there as an ever present termination to it all?”
Yama pleaded with Nachiketas:
Kathopanishad verse (1)-21
Even the gods have had doubts in this matter. The nature
of it (the soul) is so subtle that it is not possible to
comprehend it satisfactorily. Choose some other boon,
Nachiketas. Do not insist; release me from this.
But Nachiketas answered:
(1)22
Even if the gods had doubts in this matter and you say
that it is not easily comprehended, who then could
expound it as you can, O Death, and what other boon can
equal
this? None, indeed.
Yama pleaded again:
(1)23
Ask for sons and grandsons who may live for a hundred
years. Ask for numerous cows, elephants, and gold and
horses. Ask for large tracts of land, and live as many
autumns as you desire.
(1)24
Or choose any boon that you can conceive equal to this,
with wealth and long life. Be lord of wide dominions, O
Nachiketas, I will make you the enjoyer of every desire.
(1)25
Ask freely for every rare enjoyment in the world of
mortals. Here are nymphs in chariots playing on lutes,
such as men have never seen. These will serve you at my
command. But, do not ask me about Death.
Nachiketas was unmoved. He said:
(1)26
These ephemeral pleasures, O Death, consume the powers
of the mortal’s senses. Even if they lasted all life,
they are of little worth. You say you give me these
gifts, but
being all limited by the death of the enjoyer, they
remain but yours though you appear to give them away,
these chariots, and song and dance. [Keep these
ephemeral things
for yourself. I do not care for them.]
(1)27
How can man get satisfied with wealth? Can we hold
wealth when we see you? All wealth disappears on death.
We live but as long as you command it to be. That boon
alone, therefore, is worthy of being desired that I
craved of you.
Yama thus failed to persuade Nachiketas to give up his
enquiry into the mystery of life even for all the
pleasures of this world and of the world of the gods.
“You have displayed courage and resolve,” said Yama.
“There can be no better seeker than such a one, even as
you stated that there can be no better instructor than
myself.
Listen, then, I shall explain.”
Then follows the teachings.
The first thing that man should learn in the pursuit of
Truth is that the Good is something different from the
Pleasant.
Yama said:
(2) 1-2
The Good is one thing, the Pleasant is another. These
two lead man to very different ends. He who chooses the
Good attains happiness. He who prefers the pleasant ever
loses his object. The wise are not deceived by the
attractions of the Pleasant. They choose the Good. Fools
are snared into the mere pleasant and perish.
(2)5
Steeped in ignorance, men engage themselves in
activities and pursuits and considering themselves men
of understanding and learned, stagger along aimlessly
like blind
men led by the blind, going round and round in the cycle
of births.
The main obstacles in the path of the man striving for
the higher life is the identification of oneself with
the body. Therefore, all teaching in Hindu Vedanta
stresses on man
finding his soul within. If one realizes the divinity of
the eternal spirit within, the battle is won.
(2)12
Concentrating the mind on the Spirit within, man should
realize the divine character of his own soul and its
inherent freedom. The Spirit lodged within oneself is
unperceived
because of the perplexities of joy and grief and
attachment to worldly objects. When one realizes the
divine Spirit within himself, all the confusion of joy
and grief disappears.
(2) 23-24
This realization can come only if from inside one’s own
heart spring purity of resolve and earnestness of
spirit. It does not come by study or learned
discussions. It comes to
one whose Self yearns for realization, and whose mind
has turned away from evil and has learnt to subdue
itself and to be at peace with the world.
In other words, it comes out of the longing for
self-realization that leads to detachment, rather than
from much learning; that is to say, it comes out of the
grace of the
Supreme Spirit that dwells within us.
The Self is other than the changing body. It is other
than the fears and the passions that agitate the mind.
The Soul is divine in origin. It is not altered in
nature by the
qualities of the mind in which it is embodied. It can be
released from the meshes of these qualities by a
realization of its own intrinsic divine nature.
The reader may note that the following verses are almost
identical with the verses in the Gita (chapter 2).
(2)-18
You are not born, nor do you die. You did not come from
anything else, nor were made out of something other than
yourself. You are unborn, eternal, everlasting and
always
existed. You are not slain, though the body is slain.
(2)-19
If you think you slay some one, or that you will be
slain by some one, you are wrong in both cases. The soul
neither slays nor is slain.
(2)-20
Subtler than the atom, greater than the greatest, the
Atman (soul) resides in the hearts of living beings. He
who makes himself desireless and has cast off grief
beholds the
greatness of the Spirit within him.
(2)-21
The man of understanding realizes this bodiless Spirit
dwelling in the bodies, this imperishable substance
lodged in the perishable and realizing it casts off
grief.
(3) 3-4-5-9
The journey of life can be safely completed, and the
Supreme world of Vishnu reached only if one keeps a
watchful control over the senses. The body is like a
chariot to
which the senses are yoked like horses. The mind is like
the reins, which enable the charioteer, viz., the
understanding, to hold the horses, i.e., the senses, in
check. The
Soul rides on the chariot, and the road is the world of
objects over which the senses move. If the reins are not
held firmly and wisely, the senses, like wild horses,
will get
out of control, and the chariot will not reach the goal,
but will go round and round in births and re-births. If
the man is wise, and controls his mind, his senses will
be like
good horses driven by a good driver.
(4) 1- 2
The self-existent Spirit worked its way out from within
and thus the openings of the mind are directed outwards,
viz., the sense organs. Therefore, do men’s thoughts
ever
tend outwards. But the few, who have true understanding,
turn their mind inwards and realize the Self within.
[The senses are created with outward tendencies like a
bar door with hinges that allow it to swing open outward
only. The Self -existent pierced the senses outward, and
so
one looks outward and not within oneself. Some wise man,
however, seeking immortality, and turning his eyes
inward, sees the inner Self.]
Those without understanding, who do not control
themselves and pursue external pleasures fall into the
widespread net of Birth and Death. Those of steady mind,
realizing
what is truly lasting, do not turn their thoughts to
transient pleasures.
(4)- 8, (4) 9
The sacred fire is well concealed in the wood like a
child in the womb of the mother. The Soul is contained
in the body as the fire is contained and concealed in
the wood.
Fire manifest takes shape in accordance with the thing
burning. It is now the flame of a lamp, now a furnace
and now a forest-fire, according as to where it is
manifested.
The fire by itself is one and the same. So also, the
Soul though manifold in embodiment, is the same as that
in which it abides for the time being.
(4)-10-11
What is here is there and what is there is here; i.e.,
things and beings seem various but are, indeed one
Being. We are liberated when we perceive this Oneness.
We go
from death to death if we perceive difference. It is the
mind that by enlightenment can overcome the notion of
difference and have a vision of the transcendent Oneness
of
all.
(4)-14-15
The rain falling on the hill divides itself and flows
down the hillsides in many torrents. The ignorant man
sees manifoldness in beings and is confused and he runs
after the
manifoldness. If water is poured into water, it becomes
one and the same with it. Thus it is with the Self of
the man of understanding who sees unity in manifoldness.
It is the light of the Spirit within that really enables
us to see, not the light that falls from outside. Does
this Spirit within shine by its own light or does it
shine by Another
Light? Is it a Self-luminous Soul or is it a reflection
of the One lustrous Being? It is on this note of sublime
doubt that the fifth valli of the Upanishad closes. The
following two
verses go together:
(5)-14
They say that the Indefinable Spirit of Supreme Bliss is
this that is within me. How can I make out whether this
Spirit within me shines by itself or shines by the
reflected light
from the Universal Spirit?
(5)-15
The sun does not furnish the light there, nor the moon,
nor the stars, nor these flashes of lightning born of
the clouds; certainly not the light of these sacrificial
fires. The
Spirit shines and all things else shine as a result.
Everything in the universe reflects but that light.
Merely to know is not enough to escape from the tangle
of illusion. Faith and discipline of life are necessary.
The illusion arises not so much from ignorance as from
attachments. Enlightenment comes with detachment, not
with learning. This is the main teaching to which all
the schools of Hindu philosophy ultimately revert and on
which
they lay the greatest emphasis. The discipline and
meditation that serve to help the Soul to detach itself
from the things or the world is what is called Yoga.
(6)-15
When the knots of the heart are untied, and man is freed
from worldly attachments, he becomes immortal. This is
the whole of the teaching
The Antaratman is lodged in the secret recess of our
hearts. It is sheathed as the reed plant is sheathed in
its blades. We should abstract it with understanding,
tearing
ourselves from attachments and desires and separating
the pure from the gross. The Spirit within is pure and
is immortal. Thus ends Yama’s exhortation in this
Upanishad:
(6)-17
Of the size of a thumb, the Spirit within is lodged in
the hearts of men and is there always. With
understanding, separate Him from the sheaths of the body
in which He is
lodged, even as you take off the blades of a reed plant.
Know that He is immaculate and deathless.
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Isa Upanishad
The Bhagavad Gita presents a synthesis of the highest
spiritual effort of the individual with the most
practical social co-operation. We should carry on the
activities of life, but we should do so remembering that
all that we do belongs to God. Work done in this spirit
will not cling to us in rebirth. This teaching that is
expanded in the Bhagavad Gita is found tersely
enunciated in the Isavasyopanishad in the first two
verses.
(Slokas one & two)
Everything in the universe abides in the Supreme Being.
Realize this well, and, realizing it, cast off the
desires that rise in the heart, for example, the thought
of possessing what is enjoyed by another. Joy comes only
by the giving up of desires and attachments. You may
live the longest life, doing work in a detached spirit
and dedicating everything to God. Thus only can we
escape the contamination of work and sterilize life.
The Vedantic teaching about higher knowledge should not
confuse us into neglect of duties and indifference about
discipline of mind and control of senses. To go through
the activities of daily life in a spirit of detachment
serves as a preparation for the reception of higher
knowledge and for self-realization, which secures Moksha
(liberation). Indeed, philosophical learning without
discipline of conduct is more to be dreaded than even
ritualism without the knowledge of Vedanta. Higher
enlightenment is impossible, and even if it were
possible, worthless, unless there has been preparation
and purification by means of restraint of the senses.
Fill the span of life given to you, says the Upanishad,
with work and worship as is done by people without the
higher knowledge, but carry on the work in the spirit of
detachment and understand the forms in the sense that
you have learnt from the higher knowledge. Thereby you
shall pass through Death to Immortality.
The Santi Sloka of the Upanishad tersely sets out the
relation of the individual soul to the Supreme Spirit.
The Self that functions within us is of divine origin.
It is of the same substance as the Supreme Spirit. The
part that makes up the individual comes out of the
whole, and the stuff of which it is made is of such a
transcendental nature that the whole remains whole, in
spite of something being taken out of the whole. Again,
though what is taken out is but part, it is as whole as
the original. The axioms of mathematics relating to the
whole and the part do not apply to the Absolute and its
manifestations.
[Note: It may be found useful to use the example of
knowledge or love that remains whole in spite of being
taken out of the whole.]
Santi Sloka
Santi sloka explanations by Swami Nikhilananda, Sri
Ramakrishna Math.
Om. That is whole; this is whole. The perfect has come
out of the
perfect. Yet the perfect remains, as before, perfect.
Or
Om. That is full; this is full. This fullness has been
projected from that
fullness. When this fulness merges in that fulness, all
that remains is fullness.
Om.Peace! Peace! Peace!
[Note That: Pure Consciousness or the attributeless
Brahman (Supreme Spirit.) Full: Perfect. This:
Hiranyagarbha, the first manifestation of Pure Brahman
in the relative universe characterised by a name and a
form. It is the world Soul, the totality of all
individual souls. The word THIS in the text also means
the manifest universe, which, like Pure Consciousness,
is perfect. Names and forms being Maya. Projected: On
account of Maya or the incomprehensible power of
Brahman. This projection or creation is like that of a
mirage is a desert, or like that of a snake which a man
sees through illusion, in a rope (in dim light a rope
may look like a snake). This projection does not effect
any change whatsoever in Brahman, as the illusory snake
does not alter the real nature of the rope, or the
mirage, the real nature of the desert. Merges: That is
to say when, by means of Knowledge, the universe is
realized as brahman. All that etc: It is because the
Supreme Brahman is the only Reality. The idea of the
phenomenal universe is falsely superimposed upon it.]
As the soul is the life of the body, which without it
would be a carcass, so is the Supreme Spirit the essence
of the individual soul’s being. And yet, even as the
soul is ‘lost’ in the body, the Supreme Spirit,
functioning as the Soul of the individual soul, loses
cognisance of its real Divine nature. It is the Supreme
Spirit that moves, though in reality there is no motion,
It being the one Reality. There can be no motion when
there is nought else. It is far away, because we fail to
realize it. It is near, because it is immanent in
everything and is in recess of one’s own heart.
5
It moves. It does not move. It is far away, yet most
near.
It is the internal Spirit of everything that we know.
If we realize this all pervading immanence of the
Supreme Spirit, the distinction between oneself and
others melts away and with it disappear, as a matter of
course, grief and illusion. Bhagavad Gita, chapter 6,
slokas 29 and 30 are almost in the same words as the
following slokas (6 and 7) from Isavasyopanishad:
6.
If one sees all living things as if they were in his own
body, i.e., feels their joys and sorrows as his own, and
sees the same Universal Spirit in all things then there
is no need for protecting oneself against others.
7.
When a man understands that all beings are, indeed, the
all-pervading Spirit, then he realizes the oneness of
all things and illusion and grief vanish.
(Translated by Swami Gambhirananda, Advaita Ashrama)
Those who worship avidya (rites) enter into blinding
darkness; but into greater darkness than that enter they
who are engaged in vidya (meditation).
(Verses 9-10-11-12-& 14
translation and explanation by
Swami Nikhilananda, Ramakrishna-Vedanta Center, New
York).
9.
Into a blinding darkness they enter who are devoted to
ignorance (rituals); but into a greater darkness they
enter who engage in knowledge (of a deity) alone.
Note: Blind Darkness: It is characterized by an absence
of knowledge because it is opposed to knowledge.
Ignorance: The word Avidya in the text signifies karma,
or ritualistic action, such as the Agnihotra sacrifice.
Greater Darkness: The result of meditation on the
deities
without any ritual leads to a greater darkness.
Knowledge: The word knowledge here means knowledge or
contemplation of a deity. It does not signify Supreme
Knowledge
10.
One thing they say, is obtained from knowledge; another,
they say, from ignorance. Thus we have heard from the
wise who have taught us this.
[Note: That is to say, the Plane of the Deities.
Another etc: The Plane of the Fathers (Pitriloka)
This: Both rituals and knowledge of the deities.
Though verse ten has described separate results for work
and for meditation on a deity, yet the real aim of the
Upanishad seems to be their harmonization, which is
described in the following verse. In order to emphasize
this harmonization, work (or ritualistic action) and
meditation on a deity (without appropriate ritualistic
action) pursued separately have been condemned in verse
nine. When anything laid down by the scriptures meets
elsewhere with scriptural disapproval, the real purpose
is not the condemnation of the thing in question, but
the glorification of something else.]
11.
He who is aware that both knowledge and ignorance should
be pursued together, overcomes death through ignorance
and obtains immortality through knowledge.
[Note: Death: The action and knowledge natural to an
unillumined person are here called death. Such a person
does not see anything beyond the sense-perceived world.
Ignorance: That is to say, ritualistic actions, which
reveal to their performers the other planes of existence
not perceived by the senses.
Immortality: The relative immortality enjoyed by the
gods in Devaloka. Absolute Immortality, or
deathlessness, is not possible without Self-Knowledge.]
12.
Into a blind darkness they enter who worship only the
unmanifested prakriti; but into a greater darkness they
enter who worship the manifested Hiranyagarbha.
[Note: Blind Darkness: In that state the light of
Brahman is not
perceived at all, because it then remains under the
spell of Maya.
Unmanifested Prakriti:
The state of non-manifestation prior to the creation of
names and forms, when the three gunas – sattva, rajas
and tamas – remain in equilibrium. The disturbance of
this equilibrium precipitates creation. This state of
non-manifestation (balance) is also known by such names
as avidya (nescience), avyakrita (the unmanifested), and
ajnaan (ignorance). It is the state between two cycles
and contains in an unmanifested form – hence the name
unmanifested prakriti – all the good and evil tendencies
and desires of the living beings of the past cycle,
which determine the lives of those to be born in the
next.
Manifested Hiranyagarbha: The first manifestation of
Brahman in the relative universe. At the beginning of a
cycle He is produced from the unmanifested prakriti and
hence is called the manifested Hiranyagarbha.]
14.
He who knows that both the unmanifested prakriti and the
manifested Hiranyagarbha should be worshipped together,
overcomes death by the worship of Hiranyagarbha and
obtains immortality through devotion to prakriti.
[Note: Manifested Hiranyagarbha: The word Vinasha in the
text means destruction. Whatever is caused is liable to
destruction. Hiranyagarbha the first individualized
manifestation of prakriti, is a caused entity; hence His
(Hiranyagarbha’s) destruction is inevitable.
Overcomes Death etc: That is to say, triumphs over the
limitations of earthly life by the attainment of various
supernatural powers through absorption in Hiranyagarbha.
Immortality: The result of this worship is, as stated
above, absorption in prakriti. The devotee remains so
merged till the next creation. The non-differentiated
state of prakriti, between two creations, endures for an
untold number of years and is therefore described as
immortality, though in a relative sense.
The result of combining the two kinds of worship in the
text is, the attainment of supernatural powers through
devotion to Hiranyagarbha, and second, the attainment of
immortality (relative) by merging in prakriti. The
attainment of this immortality is the culmination of the
efforts of a man or a god. It is the highest achievement
in the relative universe.
[The highest result of the actions prescribed by the
scriptures and performed with such material accessories
as animals and gold, and also of knowledge of the
deities, is, as shown above, absorption in prakriti.
Here the life of samsara (worldly life) reaches its
limit. But all this lies within the realm of relativity
and is not the final liberation. The seeker of
Liberation follows the path of Knowledge, renounces all
desires, and contemplates Brahman. Thus the Vedas
prescribe two paths, one characterized by action, and
the other by renunciation. It has been stated before
that meditation on the deities, combined with
appropriate rituals, enables one to enjoy relative
immortality. ]
[Verses 16 & 17,
translation and commentary by Sri C. Rajagopalachari]
The Isavasyopanishad winds up with a prayer for strength
to maintain internal and external purity. Addressing the
morning sun, the aspirant is taught to feel and say: “O
Sun, of refulgent glory, I am the same Person as He that
is in you.” And he is asked to say to himself: “My body
will disintegrate but not I and my deeds. O Mind,
remember this always, remember this always.”
16.
Oh Sun, who art our Nourisher, Giver of Knowledge,
Dispenser of Justice, Giver of Light, Son of the
Creator, disperse thy rays, draw in thy light, so that I
may be enabled to behold thy most beautiful form. I am
that same Person as makes thee who thou art.
As for my body
17.
My body will be reduced to ashes and my breath will join
the deathless moving winds. Oh Mind, remember thy acts.
The formula- I am the person that is seen in that
refulgent form – occurs slightly modified in Chhandogya
Upanishad also.
The insistence is on the realization of the
all-inclusive Oneness of the Soul, the Universe. The
Spirit of the Sun is the same as myself! A daily
repetition and contemplation of this truth is prescribed
as an aid in life to detachment, elevation of Spirit and
Self-realization.
back to top
Kenopanishad
What is the Supreme Spirit? By what relation to our
experience shall we understand it? This is the subject
of enquiry in this Upanishad. As the Isavasyopanishad is
known by its first word, so also is this Upanishad named
after its first word Kena, “By whom?”
Neither by the senses nor by human reasoning can we hope
to comprehend the nature of Brahman (Supreme Reality).
This is so because the subject, the object and the means
are all identical. It is Brahman by which the
understanding itself functions.
Kenopanishad I – verses 5-6-7-8
The Supreme Spirit is that by which the mind thinks; it
is not one of the concepts that can be conceived by the
mind, but it is that by which, indeed, one is able to
think through his mind. It is that which enables the eye
to see, the ear to hear, the breath to move. These
functions themselves depend on Brahman, and therefore,
are these senses and the mind unable to comprehend the
Brahman. Do not take this body that one has to feed and
look after for the Soul.
Life is not the aggregate of the functions of the body
but a function of the Highest Spirit, inasmuch as not a
thought or a breath or a glance is possible without the
Supreme Agent.
Kenopanishad II – verses 1-3
He who thinks that he knows really thereby proves
himself ignorant. He who realizes that he cannot know
Him has best understood Him. Those who seek to know Him,
as they can grasp things of ordinary knowledge, can
never achieve their object. Those who realize the
limitation of the human mind in respect of the knowledge
of the Supreme Spirit and, therefore, frankly confess
ignorance, really approach a true understanding of it.
The limitation of human knowledge, when trying to
comprehend the Supreme Being, is brought out in the
above epigram.
Kenopanishad II – verses 4
When it is known through every conscious state, it is
rightly known and one attains eternal life thereby.
Through his own self he gains strength and through his
knowledge immortality.
Not by reasoning but only by an awakening can we get a
vision of the Supreme Spirit. Life, in relation to the
Ultimate Reality, is like a state of sleep. Reason, in
respect of Ultimate Reality, is like the impossible
conception of a sleeping man trying to know what he is
about, without waking up. As sleep is to waking, so is
ordinary life to the state of realization.
Self-discipline gives strength of spirit (Atmana Vindate
Veerya).
To one so strengthened, knowledge gives immortality (Vidyaya
Vindate Amritam).
The Self is itself immortal, and one has but to know it
to become immortal. A man dreams that he is suffering
from a mortal illness and is dying. He suffers pain and
even death. But the moment he wakes up, he is cured and
regains life. So does Jnana (Knowledge) give immortality
to man.
The third chapter of this Upanishad is an allegory to
illustrate that everything rests on the Supreme Spirit.
It is That which gives heat to Fire, and energy to
Motion, and the power of knowing to individual
knowledge, however great. All beings are like electric
lamps that glow by the power that is received by them
from the Supreme Being, themselves not knowing it.
The gods were once elated at a great victory, and the
Brahman (Supreme Being) appeared before them. They could
not recognize or understand the vision. Agni (fire),
Vayu (air) and Indra (king of gods) were sent to
approach and understand Him. They went, one by one, and
tried to impress on the strange vision their respective
powers. But when they were challenged to prove their
vaunted strength, Agni (fire) could not burn, and Vayu
(air) could not move by a hair’s breadth a dry bit of
grass which was placed before them and which they
attacked with all their strength one after the other.
Indra went near to see, when the other two failed, but
with his thousand eyes he failed to see anything
whatsoever. The apparition disappeared altogether from
his sight.
I – verses 3
III-3
They said to Agni (fire): “Oh, Jataveda, go and
ascertain who this is, this adorable Being.” He said:
“Yes.”
III-4
He ran up to the Being, who asked him: “Who are you?”
Agni answered: “I am Agni, I am also called Jataveda.”
III-5
And what is your strength?” the Being asked. “I can burn
up all that is here on earth,” answered Agni.
III-6
He placed before Agni a bit of dry grass, saying, “Burn
this.” Going at it with all his energy Agni found that
he could not burn it. He returned to the gods and said
he could not make out who this strange Being was.
III-7
Then they said to Vayu (air): “Oh, do go and
ascertain who this is.” And Vayu said, “So be it.”
III-8
He ran up to the Being, who asked him, “Who are you?” “I
am Vayu, otherwise called Matarisva,” answered Vayu.
III-9
Then said the Being, “What is your strength?” “Oh, I can
sweep away whatever exists on this earth,” answered Vayu.
III-10
Then the Being placed a withered blade of grass before
Vayu, and said: “Move this.” Vayu set on it with all his
might, but could not move it; and he returned to the
gods and said: “I could not make out who this is.”
III-11
Thereupon, they beseeched Indra to find out who it was.
He agreed to do so, but when he ran up, he found that
the Being had gone out of his view altogether.
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Taittiriya Upanishad
We have in the Taittiriya Upanishad, (first Valli,
eleventh anuvaka) a valedictory exhortation which
reveals to us something of the system of education that
produced the cultured among the ancient inhabitants of
this sacred land (India).
After having taught the Vedas, the teacher instructs the
pupil thus: Speak what is true. Do your duties.
Continue, without neglect, the daily study of the Veda.
Now that you have come to the end of your stay with your
teacher, marry and bring forth progeny. Do not swerve
from Truth and Dharma, and do something useful in the
social economy. Achieve greatness, and do not fail to
refresh your memory in respect of what you have learnt.
Remember the gods and your ancestors. Honour your
mother. Look upon her as god. Honour your father. Look
upon him as god. Honour your teacher as god. Honour your
guest. Look upon him as if god came to receive your
attention. May you ever exercise your understanding and,
distinguishing the good from the blameworthy, avoid the
latter and ever do what is good. Follow all that was
good in your teacher’s life, not any other. You will
meet with better men than even the teachers with whom
you have lived. Show them due respect.
3.
Give gifts with faith, not neglectfully but with joy,
with humility, with fear and with kindness.
4.
If your mind is troubled with any doubts as to what is
right or wrong, follow the example of gentle and pious
elders living in your neighbourhood in regard to those
matters. This is the rule and this the teaching.
In the third Valli of the Tattiriya Upanishad, Varuna
instructs his son Brigu on the immanence of Brahman
(Supreme Reality) in matter as well as Spirit. The food
we eat and the air we breathe are sacred forms of
Brahman that builds us up, enables us to speak, think,
act, exercise the will and understand.
III –2
He knew that food is Brahman, for from food, indeed, are
born all beings in this world, by food do they live,
and, after death, they become food again for other
beings.
III- 7-10
We should not speak ill of food. We should not throw
away food. We should produce plenty of food. We should
let no one who comes for food be turned away.
The teaching is that food should be looked upon as
Brahman, for from food are born all beings, by food do
they live, and they become food at their death. It is by
food, one for another, that all beings are made
interdependent and made into one linked to the whole
world.
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Aitareya Upanishad
1.
In the beginning all this was Atman – one only. There
was nothing else active. He bethought himself, ‘Let me
now create the world.’ He created these worlds.
[Note: Atman = Self or the Supreme Reality]
2.
He bethought himself, ‘Here then are the worlds. Let me
now create the guardians of the worlds.’ From the waters
themselves he drew forth the person and gave him a
shape.
3.
He bethought himself, ‘Here are the worlds and the
guardians of the worlds. Let me create food for them.’
4.
He brooded upon the waters and from the waters so
brooded on, a form was produced. The form that was
produced – that was indeed food.
5.
The food that was thus created wished to run away. The
person sought to seize it with his speech. He could not
grasp it with his speech. If he had grasped it with his
speech, then by merely speaking of food one would have
been satisfied.
6.
He then sought to seize it with his breath. He could not
grasp it with his breath. If he had grasped it with his
breath, then by merely breathing on food one would have
been satisfied.
7.
He then sought to seize it with his sight. He could not
grasp it with his sight. If he had grasped it with his
sight, then by merely seeing food one would have been
satisfied.
8.
He then sought to seize it with his hearing. He could
not grasp it with his hearing. If he had grasped it with
his hearing, then by merely hearing of food one would
have been satisfied.
9.
He then sought to seize it with his skin. He could not
grasp it with his skin. If he had grasped it with his
skin, then by merely touching food one would have been
satisfied.
10.
He then sought to seize it with his mind. He could not
grasp it with his mind. If he had grasped it with his
mind, then by merely thinking of food one would have
been satisfied.
11.
He then sought to seize it with his Apana (digestive
breath). He got it. It is this breath that takes in
food. It is this breath that lives on food.
12.
He (the Atman) bethought himself, ‘Now can this thing
(this person) live without me?’ He bethought himself,
‘By which way shall I enter it?’ He bethought himself,
‘If speaking is done by the organ of speech, breathing
by breath, seeing by the eye, hearing by the ear,
touching by the skin, thinking by the mind, eating by
the Apana (digestive breath) – then who am I?’
13.
So cleaving asunder this end (of the head), He entered
by that way. This is the opening known as Vidriti (the
cleft). It is the place of bliss. For Him there are
three abodes (in the body) – three states of sleep –
this one, this one and this one.
[Note:(Explanation by Swami Nikhilananda, Belur Math):
So piercing the end (i.e. the place where the parting of
the hair ends), the Lord entered through that door.
Three conditions of sleep: the three states of
consciousness – waking, dream and deep sleep.]
14.
He (the Jiva or the embodied soul), being born, knew and
talked only of the created objects. How should he speak
of any other? And then (after enlightenment) did he see
this very Person, Brahman, the All-pervading and say
‘This have I seen.’
II (Up. III. 1.)
1.
Who is he whom we worship as Atman? Which one is Atman?
Is it he by whom one sees, or by whom one hears, or by
whom one smells the smell or by whom one speaks the
speech, or by whom one knows the sweet and the bitter?’
2.
That which is known as the heart, the mind – that is
consciousness, perception, discrimination, intelligence,
wisdom, insight, steadfastness, thought, acuteness,
impulse, memory, volition, decision, life, desire,
control – all these are indeed, the names of
intelligence (Prajnana).
3.
This Brahma, this Indra, this Prajapati, these gods,
these five great elements – earth, air, space, water,
fire – these things together with small creatures, and
those of different origins – those born from an egg,
those born from a womb, those born from sweat and those
born from a sprout; horses, cows, men, elephants;
whatever breathing thing there is here, whether moving
or flying, and whatever is stationary – all this is
guided by intelligence, is based on intelligence. The
world is guided by intelligence. Intelligence is the
basis. Intelligence is Brahman (the Supreme reality).
4.
By means of this Intelligent Self the (Vamadeva) soared
upward from this world and, having fulfilled all his
desires in the yonder world of heaven, became immortal –
yea, became immortal.
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Chandogya Upanishad
The Sama-Veda includes among its treasures the
Chhandogya Brahmana, consisting of ten parts; of these,
the last eight constitute the Chhandogya Upanishad. In
turn, the eight parts of the Upanishad may be broadly
divided into two sections.
The first consists of five parts, deals with upasana, or
ritualistic worship with emphasis on meditation. The
second section, of three parts, discusses certain
fundamental doctrines of the Vedanta philosophy; in the
sixth part, the Vedantic dictum “Tattvamasi,” or “That
Thou art”; in the seventh part, the doctrine of Bhuma,
or Infinity; and in the eighth part, the doctrine of
Atman (Self).
The Brihadaranyaka and the Chhandogya, which are the
longest of the Upanishads, occupy a superior position
among the Upanishads known to us. Discussing profound
philosophical truths through numerous anecdotes, they
form the basis of the later development of the Vedanta
philosophy. Sankaracharya, in establishing the
philosophy of non-dualism, derived support from such
statements of the Chhandogya Upanishad as: “One only
without a second” (Vi, xiv.1), “From It the universe
comes forth, into It the universe merges, and in It the
universe breathes. Therefore a man should meditate on
Brahman (the Supreme Reality) with a calm mind” (III,
xiv, 1), and “That is the Self. That thou art” (VI,
viii. 7). If a serious student carefully reads the
Chhandogya Upanishad with the help of Sankaracharya’s
commentary, he will come to know all the major topics of
the Upanishads and will be directed toward the
philosophy of the inscrutable Brahman.
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Mundaka Upanishad
May our ears hear what is good, may our eyes see what is
good. May we, what time we live, be blessed with healthy
limbs and body, that we may glorify the Lord. May all
the gods bless us. May our minds be at peace.
The Upanishad consists of Angira’s instruction to his
disciple, Shaunaka.
I-(1) -4 ,5, 7 ,8
There are two sciences worthy of being learnt, of which
the learned treat one as higher, and the other as lower.
The Vedas, the Rig Veda, the Yajur Veda, the Sama Veda,
the Atharva Veda, intonation, ritual, grammar,
etymology, metre, astronomy and all else that is
commonly known as learning constitute the lower
knowledge, the higher is that by which the Ever-Existing
is realized.
Ceremonials and sacrifices lead men round and round, and
not to the ultimate goal to which an understanding of
the Self alone can lead.
The popular belief that as regards the efficacy of
sacrifices is, though not rudely negated, politely put
aside in the Upanishads as not leading to what is true
and imperishable happiness.
The passage that occurs in Katha Upanishad about fools
fancying themselves learned appears here with just one
verbal change. Light is here thrown on what is meant by
the important term Avidya that occurs in the Katha
Upanishad and Isavasya Upanishad and also in the
Bhagavad Gita (ch. 2- 42,43).
I-(2) –12
Realizing this, the seeker should abandon his desire and
attachments for things transient, and respectfully
approach a teacher who is qualified by learning and
conduct to impart the higher knowledge.
This deals with the relationship between the individual
soul and the Absolute Being.
The soul is like the spark that is thrown out and
re-absorbed by the blazing fire.
II-(1)-1
It is left to be inferred that it is of the same nature
as the fire, and does not exist apart from it.
II-(1) 4,5
The whole universe is a manifestation and product of
that universal, formless, causeless Being. The sun, the
moon and all the quarters, all knowledge, and the souls
of all existing beings are parts and manifestations of
that single all-immanent Being. All life and all
qualities, functions and activities are forms of that
single Energy. He is the Fire, which has lighted the Sun
and makes it burn, like a log burning in the fire.
Thereby does the sun give us warmth and light. The rain
does not rain, but it is He that rains through the
clouds. Beings come together and multiply, but it is He
alone that multiplies through them.
II-(1) 9,10
From Him have issued all the mountains and the seas, the
rivers, the trees and plants and their life bearing
essences. He who thus knows the Supreme spirit that
dwells within the heart, dear boy, cuts off all the
knots of ignorance that bind man.
II-(2) 1
He has taken shape and dwells near, yea, in the cave of
the human heart. Everything that moves, breathes or
twinkles, moves and lives in Him. All that exists, as
well as all ideas, even those, which the mind indicates
to itself as inconceivable, issue out of His presence.
II-(2) 3,4
To perceive this Absolute Foundation of all existence,
the mind must be as concentrated on it as an archer
concentrates on his target. The Upanishad, i.e.,
knowledge received from the teacher, is the bow. The
understanding Self should, like an arrow sharpened by
devotion, be placed in it. Directing it at the target,
viz., the Brahman (the Supreme Reality), pull the
bowstring well with concentrated mind and you will hit
the target. As a skilful archer, when aiming, makes his
arrow merge in the target in his sight, and the two
become but one and the same thing, so should your Self,
the arrow, be merged by concentration in the target,
viz., Brahman.
When the pupil pulls the bowstring with steady aim, if
the teacher asks him, ‘What do you see?’
The pupil should be able to reply truly that he sees
nothing but the point he aims at. He must see neither
bow, nor arrow, nor anything else but Brahman.
He is the whole universe. Heaven, Earth and Sky. Your
mind and your life-breath are all woven into Him. All
other knowledge is a mere snare of words to be escaped
from. He is the one and only Existence. This knowledge
is the bridge leading to Immortality.
II-(2)-7
He is within our own hearts. He has lodged Himself in
the food-sustained body of men and rules both body and
life, even He that sustains the whole universe and all
its glory. The unruffled spirits contemplate on Him and
realize his deathless form of absolute joy.
II-(2)-8
When His presence in our own bodies and His immanence in
every aspect of existence is realized, all doubts, all
attachments and all activities vanish.
II(2)-10,11
On realizing Him, what is individual life? What even are
the sun and the moon, the stars and the lightning of the
clouds? What need be said, then, of this fire? All these
are but reflections of that One undying Light. He fills
all the quarters and all overhead and down below. He
alone exists.
III-(1)-1,3
Man’s suffering lasts only until he sees the Supreme
Being that dwells within himself. The indwelling Supreme
Spirit and the individual soul are like two birds. They
cling to one another and are on the same tree. One eats
the fruits of the tree, the other look on, happy. One is
attached to works, the other is free. When a man sees
the Universal Ruler in himself, then the distinction
between good and evil drops off. He is freed from
passions and reaches the goal, i.e., becomes one with
the Universal.
How can one be enabled to have a vision of the Supreme
Being within oneself? Mere learning does not reveal Him.
One has to realize that the Lord is the life that lives
and the light that shines in everything. When he
realizes this, he loses his dependence on externals and
finds bliss in himself.
III-(1)-4
The man who realizes ‘It is the Supreme Life that shines
through all life’ does not waste words. His pleasures
and his love are then all in the soul. He becomes the
most enlightened among the philosophers.
III-(1)-5
Truth, penance, understanding and purity are essential
requisites for this revelation of the Brahman within.
When the heart is cleansed, Brahman is revealed, and He
is seen shining like a burning light within oneself.
III-(1)-6
Truth wins ever, and not untruth. With Truth is paved
the road to the Divine. On that road walk the Rishis
(seers of Truth) with desires all quenched, to reach the
Supreme Abode of Truth.
Truth is the only pathway to God, and the seers pursue
this to reach Him. This emphatic dependence on Truth is
the dominating characteristic of the Upanishad.
The Lord is not to be apprehended by the senses, but
only by the mind into which all the senses have been
drawn in. All thought is inter-woven with the senses,
and it is only when the mind is released from all this
and is in a state of perfect freedom and tranquillity,
that the Lord reveals Himself.
III-(1)-8, 9
Not by the eyes nor by speech or through other senses
can He be apprehended: not even by austerities or
ceremonials. He whose mind is pure and serene can by
meditation attain a vision of the Indivisible. The
Subtle Spirit dwelling within, into which the fivefold
life has entered, can be realized by the understanding.
If the understanding that is pierced and pervaded by the
senses is purified, then the spirit reveals itself unto
it.
This appears in the Katha Upanishad also.
“Much learning or scholarly discussion, or force
of intellect cannot enable one to realize the spirit
within”.
III-(2)-3
The Spirit that yearns for self-realization realizes
itself.
The yearning for realization automatically destroys
other desires and attachments, and enables one to reach
self-realization.
The feeble minded, who do not make earnest effort
through well-directed meditation and control of mind and
senses, cannot hope to realize the Self within. The will
to realize and strenuous effort are necessary. BALAM in
the following sloka stands for effort and strength
exercised in the way of self-control and steady
application.
III-(2)-4
Realization of the Soul cannot be attained by a man who
has not strength and a vigilant spirit. It cannot be
attained by austerities without devotion. But if with
understanding a man strives with these aids, his soul
enters the Abode of Brahman.
II-(2)-6, 8
Knowledge and discipline are mutually complimentary.
Vedanta explains the true nature of what we seek. Yoga,
i.e., detachment and self-discipline, purifies the mind
and enables it to perceive the Truth. Those whose
understanding has been thus enlightened as well as
purified become one with the Universal Spirit. They join
the Supreme Being and lose themselves in Him even as all
the rivers join and lose themselves in the great ocean.
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Svetasvatara Upanishad
Svetasvatara UpanishadThe doctrine of the Vedanta is
summarized in the following mantras:
I-8
The Lord upholds the universe, which is a union of the
manifest and the unmanifest, the imperishable and the
perishable. Functioning as Enjoyer through the senses,
the soul in man loses the consciousness of lordship and
is enchained. When he realizes lordship, he is freed
from every tie. Let man realize the divinity of his
soul. Thereby does he obtain Release.
I-10
Iswara rules over the soul as well as material nature
which forms the field for the soul’s functioning. Man
reaches liberation from all the illusions of the world
by contemplation and repeated meditation until
realization is attained of the true nature of these
three, God, matter and soul.
The fire is not seen when it is concealed in the wood.
But it appears to view when the wood burns. So does
meditation bring out the Supreme Spirit from within us.
Like oil hidden in the sesame seed, like ghee (clarified
butter) concealed in milk, like water hidden from view
in the riverbed, like fire that is contained in the
Arani (fire-churner), abides the Supreme Spirit within
us, though not manifest. When the two pieces of wood in
the Arani are rubbed, the fire manifests itself. The
butter is separated by churning the milk. The water is
seen if we sink a pit in the sand of the riverbed. The
divine Self, can similarly be made manifest through the
practice of truth, meditation and control of the mind
and the senses, which is penance. Make the body the
lower piece of the Arani and make the Understanding the
upper piece and by the practice of meditation, churn the
fire out, so to say.
I-13
Just as fire when it abides in its womb, the wood, is
not seen in its manifest form but yet exists and appears
to view when the wood burns, even so do both aspects of
abiding unmanifest and being drawn out apply to the
Spirit in the body. The Pranava (AUM) can enable the
Spirit to be perceived.
I-14
Make your body the nether piece and Pranava the upper
piece of the Arani and churn with the practice of
meditation. Thus will you be enabled to perceive the
concealed Divinity within.
I-15
As oil in the oil seed, ghee (clarified butter) in the
curdled milk and water in the riverbed, so can That be
obtained out of the Self, through truth and restraint of
thought and the senses.
Verses IV 1-4 are addressed as a prayer for
enlightenment to the Universal Spirit which is One but
takes various shapes with various powers and functions,
that will in the end re-unite and be lost in Him – the
Sun, the Moon, the Air, the starry firmament, fire,
water, Brahma, the lord, man and woman, in youth or in
tottering old age, beast, bird, insect, the dark blue
bee, the green parrot with red eyes, the clouds that
shoot forth lightning, the ocean, the seasons – all will
be re-absorbed in Him that has no beginning, the cause
of All.
IV-17
The divine Spirit that has forged and brought the
universe into being, the Supreme Soul, ever dwells in
the hearts of men. He is revealed by the heart and
intellect combining and controlling the mind and by
meditation. They attain deathlessness who thus see Him
revealed.
IV-20
This Isa, dwelling in the heart of man, can be perceived
not by the eye but the heart; and he who perceives Him
thus by the heart attains immortality.
Not time or innate quality of matter is the true cause
of phenomena as some learned men imagine but the glory
of God who dwells in and revolves all things, animate
and inanimate. When one discovers this Universal Spirit
within one’s self, the misery of life is ended. It would
be easier to roll up the sky and carry it on one’s head
as a tanner carries a hide than to achieve happiness
without realizing the immanence of God.
VI-1
Some learned men attribute the phenomena of the universe
to the innate nature of things, other deluded persons
say that time is the cause. But it is the glory of God
by which alone the wheel revolves and this world goes
on.
VI-5
God, who is concealed in all beings, is one. He pervades
everything. He is the inner soul of every being and the
overseer of all activity. He dwells in all forms of
life. He is the eternal witness, the Conscious Being
within, standing apart from that in which He abides and
unqualified.
VI-8
When (men could roll up the sky like a hide), we could
reach the end of pain and grief without realizing God
who abides in all things.
VI-19
Without parts, action-less, tranquil, that cannot be
contaminated, spotless, the bridge that transcends and
leads to immortality, consuming and unquenchable like
fire.
The direct teaching of a father or a Guru is essential.
Without this, book knowledge would be of no great avail.
But more important than all is the previous purging of
character and restraint of mind and senses, which are
necessary for the knowledge and realization of the
highest truth. Otherwise, knowledge leads to harm, not
to good. “I am God” would lead to arrogance and atheism
without purity of character, restraint and humility and
the personal guidance of father or revered teacher.
Hence the following prohibition which should not be
understood in any sense other than the caution above
indicated.
VI-22
This highest mysticism, expounded in the Vedanta in a
former age, should not be taught to one whose passions
have not been subdued, nor to one who is not a worthy
son, nor to an unworthy disciple.
VI-23
These truths, when taught, shine forth only in that
high-souled one who has supreme devotion to God, and an
equal degree of devotion to the spiritual teacher. They
shine forth in that high-souled one only.
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Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad forms an important part of
the philosophical and religious literature of the Vedas.
Suresvacharya, in his illuminating explanation of
Sankara’s commentary has pointed out the harmony between
the different parts of the Upanishad. He has arranged
the book in three divisions (kandas):
The Madhukanda
The Yajnavalkyakanda (also known as Munikanda)
The Khilakanda
The Madhukanda contains the revelation of the principal
Advaita doctrines and is called Upadesa (teachings).
The Yajnavakyakanda furnishes logical arguments (upapatti),
showing the soundness of the upadesa (teachings).
The Khilakanda deals with certain forms of meditation (upasana),
by means of which the aspirant experiences what is laid
down in the upadesa (teachings).
The theme of the book, as of all Vedantic treatises, is
the absolute identity of Atman (Self) and Brahman (the
Supreme Reality). This identity has been established by
the well known logical method of jalpa (argument
repudiating the views of opponents) and vada (reasoning
for the purpose of discovering Reality).
There exists an apparently unbridgeable gap between the
ritualistic section (Karmakanda) of the Vedas, dealing
with the various enjoyments (abhyudaya) in the
phenomenal universe (samsara), and the philosophical
section of the Upanishads (Jnanakanda), describing the
knowledge of Brahman, which alone enables the aspirant
to attain Liberation (moksha) or the Highest Good (Nihsreyasa).
The section of the Upanishads dealing with the upasana,
however, supplies the bridge. It shows the way to direst
the mind from the performance of rituals to the
philosophical contemplation of Brahman.
The Madhukanda, emphasising the authority of scriptural
revelation, describes the major doctrines of the
Upanishads, whose aim is to demonstrate the identity of
Atman and Brahman. The method of arriving at this
identity is the discussion of what are known in Vedanta
as adhyaropa and apavada. Adhyaropa signifies the
illusory superimposition of names and forms, through
avidya (ignorance), upon the attributeless Brahman. This
illusory superimposition accounts for the appearance of
the phenomenal universe. Apavada is the refutation or
sublation of the illusory phenomena, which is
simultaneous with the experience of Pure Brahman. No
further discipline is necessary for this realisation.
The moment the illusory nature of the mirage is
recognised, the true nature of the desert is revealed.
The phenomenal universe includes the entire realm of
names and forms. To it belongs all the Vedic rituals and
the various meditations associated with them, as well as
their results. The world of Brahma or hiranyagarbha,
which may be called the highest heaven, belongs also to
the phenomenal universe and is therefore transitory. The
only entity that transcends the universe is Atman
(Self), non-dual and eternal, which is pointed out by
negation (‘neti’) of names and forms (Brihadaranyaka
Upanishad II.iii.6). The aspirant cannot truly long for
Self-knowledge unless he has gone through the entire
gamut of experiences in the phenomenal world, ranging
from the experience associated with the life of a clump
of grass to that associated with Hiranyagarbha. The
Upanishad vividly describes the rituals and the
meditations for the realisation of various enjoyments in
the universe of names and forms. By performing these
rituals and practising these meditations an aspirant can
find out the impermanent nature of all phenomenal
enjoyments, including those obtained in Brahmaloka, and
turn his attention to the knowledge of Atman which
dwells in himself.
While discussing Adhyaropa, the Upanishad states that
all phenomenal entities are mutually dependent, are
objects of mutual enjoyment, and are conditioned by the
law of cause and effect (Br.I.v.1). The whole universe,
either in its unmanifested or in its manifested aspect,
is of the very essence of names, forms, and action (Br.I.vi),
and is therefore non-Self. Anything that is the result
of action belongs to the realm of samsara. It is
impermanent (Br. I.iv.15), since the result lasts only
as long as the momentum given by the cause endures.
Samsara is perceived to exist as long as duality, the
result of avidya, remains. It disappears with the
attainment of the knowledge of the non-dual Brahman (Br.
I.iv.7; II.iv,14). Therefore, one seeking Liberation
cultivates dispassion for all objects of the phenomenal
universe, including the supreme position of
Hiranyagarbha. In order to show the way to emancipation
from the impermanent universe and to the realisation of
Self-knowledge, the Upanishad says that the Self alone
is to be meditated upon, for in It the prana and the
sense-organs become unified (Br. I.iv.7). This
scriptural statement is called a Vidya-sutra or
knowledge-aphorism, in contrast with another statement
called an avidya-sutra or nescience-aphorism, which
says: “Now, if a man worships another deity, thinking:
‘He is one and I am another’, he does not know
(Br.I.iv.10). These two statements describe the subject
matter of vidya and avidya. The former deals with Atman
and the latter with samsara. It is also said in
connection with avidya that nescience, which veils the
true nature of Atman, is the cause of the phenomenal
universe.
After thus describing adhyaropa, or the illusory
superimposition of names and forms, the Madhukanda deals
with apavada, or their refutation, in order to establish
the ultimate oneness of Atman and Brahman. The text
states that there are two forms, incorporeal (amurta)
and corporeal (murta), of the phenomenal universe which
are superimposed upon Brahman (Br. II.iii.1). Then the
text exhorts (Br. II.iii.6) the student to negate them.
But it emphatically affirms that Brahman is not void (sunya),
though It can never be brought within the scope of
affirmation. One may, however, glimpse It through the
negation of eliminable factors produced by ignorance
(‘Not this, not this’ – Iti na, iti na’.)
It has already been mentioned that the realisation of
the unreal nature of samsara and the knowledge of Atman
accompany each other. Therefore Atman alone is to be
realised, heard of, reflected upon, and contemplated
(Br. II.iv.5). Everything in the world is loved because
of Atman (II.iv.5). When Atman is known all things are
known (II.iv.7-9). Unselfish action, rites, and
meditations are enjoined as disciplines for the
Knowledge of Atman, as also hearing, reasoning, and
contemplation. But through renunciation (sannyasa) the
Knowledge obtaines by these means becomes an unshakable,
positive experience. The Rishi Yajnavalkya embraces the
monastic life (IV.vi.15). The monastic life is also
emphasized in other parts of the Upanishad (III.v.i;
IV.iv.22).
The upadesa, or teaching, in the Madhukanda is
appropriately followed by the upapatti, or argumentative
discourse, in the Yajnavalkyakanda, or Munikanda. Both
divisions aim at revealing the oneness of Atman and
Brahman; so both have the same purpose. Thus one finds a
similarity between certain important verses of the two
divisions. There is likewise a similarity between the
topics discussed in the two divisions.
In the Yajnavalkyakanda, the dialectical mode of
argument is employed. Yajnavalkya is challenged by
learned philosophers in the court of King Janaka (III.i.)
to demonstrate his knowledge of Brahman (the Supreme
reality). He silences his interlocutors and fights his
way to victory. In this discussion he follows the method
of jalpa, by means of which the views of the opponent
are refuted.
In the fourth part, in the course of his dialogue with
king Janaka, Yajnavalkya employs the method of vada,
that is to say, reasoning for the ascertaining of truth.
The earlier dialogue between Yajnavalkya and Maitreyi is
repeated in order to establish by means of reasoning the
Self-Knowledge which has already been affirmed on the
authority of the scriptures. In commenting on the last
passage of this part (IV.v.15.), Sankaracharya discusses
the value of the monastic discipline in the
non-dualistic scheme of liberation, and emphasizes the
imperative necessity of renunciation of the world for
the realization of Brahman. He does not allow any
compromise, either in practice or in theory, between the
Knowledge of Brahman and the performance of religious
rites with or without meditation.
The third division of the Upanishad is known as the
Khilakanda, or supplementary section. It contains
ethical disciplines and certain forms of meditation
helpful for the knowledge of Brahman, The message of the
brihadaranyaka Upanishad regarding the essence of
Reality is given in (V.i.1.) The ethical doctrines of
the Upanishad are stated in the introduction (V.ii.1)
regarding self-control, charity, and compassion, by
means of which one can suppress, respectively, passion,
greed, and anger. The last part of the Khilakanda
describes the religious rites and disciplines by which
one can earn wealth and procreate righteous children,
both of which are necessary in order to enjoy happiness
here on earth and after death.
I have tried to show that there is an inner unity
throughout the entire Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. It
teaches the non-duality of Reality, and not dualism,
qualified non-dualism, the doctrine of difference and
identity, or any other system. To be sure, there are
scholars who do not find this unity of thought in the
Upanishad but maintain that it contains different views
of Brahman by various thinkers, unrelated to one
another. Some try to explain the Upanishad with the help
of philology. Others, again, apply the rational mthod of
modern times. They all, it appears, miss the aim of the
Upanishad, namely, Self-Knowledge, which transcends
logic but does not contradict it.
The Brihadaranyaka Upanishad has been divided by Sankara
into six parts, which again, are subdivided into a total
of forty-seven chapters, called brahmanas. Each chapter
contains a number of verses, called kandikas.
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